Mussolini — Palazzo Venezia, 1 September

Benito Mussolini, 56, has ruled Italy since 1922. In May 1939 he signed the Pact of Steel with Nazi Germany — a military alliance binding Rome to enter any war on Germany's side within the agreed timetable. His son-in-law Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister, had signed the accord believing there would be a delay of three or four years before any outbreak.

On 11 August 1939, Ciano meets Joachim von Ribbentrop at Salzburg, then Hitler at the Berghof. He discovers that Germany will attack Poland within days. Mussolini is informed. On 25 August 1939, by letter, the Duce tells Hitler: "If Germany attacks Poland and the Allies counter-attack, Italy will not be able to take part at once owing to the state of her preparations." He asks for massive deliveries of raw materials (twelve million tons of matériel), impossible to supply. Hitler accepts.

On 1 September 1939 the invasion begins. Mussolini has to choose his public position. Italian opinion is overwhelmingly opposed to war. The army is not ready: 1.7 million men, but obsolete equipment, a navy without aircraft carriers, an air force whose strength has been wildly overstated. King Victor Emmanuel III, Badoglio and the finance minister Thaon di Revel all press for abstention. Three options sit on Ciano's desk.